Effects of inoculated Microcoleus vaginatus on the structure and function of biological soil crusts of desert

Microcoleus vaginatus Gom., the dominant species in biological soil crusts (BSCs) in desert regions, plays a significant role in maintaining the BSC structure and function. The BSC quality is commonly assessed by the chlorophyll a content, thickness, and compressive strength. Here, we have studied the effect of different proportions of M. vaginatus, collected from the Gurbantunggut Desert in northwestern China, on the BSC structure and function under laboratory conditions. We found that when M. vaginatus was absent in the BSC, the BSC coverage, quantified by the percentage of BSC area to total land surface area, was low with a chlorophyll a content of 4.77 x 10(-2) mg g(-1) dry soil, a thickness of 0.86 mm, and a compressive strength of 12.21 Pa. By increasing the percentage of M. vaginatus in the BSC, the BSC coverage, chlorophyll a content, crust thickness, and compressive strength all significantly increased (P < 0.01). The maximum chlorophyll a content (13.12 mg g(-1)dry soil), the highest crust thickness, and the compressive strength (1.48 mm and 36.60 Pa, respectively) occurred when the percentage of inoculated M. vaginatus reached 80% with a complex network of filaments under scanning electron microscope. The BSC quality indicated by the above variables, however, declined when the BSC was composed of pure M. vaginatus (monoculture). In addition, we found that secretion of filaments and polymer, which stick sands together in the BSC, increased remarkably with the increase of the dominant species until the percentage of M. vaginatus reached 80%. Our results suggest that not only the dominant species but also the accompanying taxa are critical for maintaining the structure and functions of the BSC and thus the stability of the BSC ecosystems.

Assessment of physical and hydrological properties of biological soil crusts using x-ray microtomography and modelling

Biological soil crusts (BSCs) are formed by aggregates of soil particles and communities of microbial organisms and are common in all drylands. The role of BSCs on infiltration remains uncertain due to the lack of data on their role in affecting soil physical properties such as porosity and structure. Quantitative assessment of these properties is primarily hindered by the fragile nature of the crusts. Here we show how the use of a combination of non-destructive imaging X-ray microtomography (XMT) and Lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) enables quantification of key soil physical parameters and the modeling of water flow through BSCs samples from Kalahari Sands, Botswana. We quantify porosity and flow changes as a result of mechanical disturbance of such a fragile cyanobacteria-dominated crust. Results show significant variations in porosity between different types of crusts and how they affect the flow and that disturbance of a cyanobacteria-dominated crust results in the breakdown of larger pore spaces and reduces flow rates through the surface layer. We conclude that the XMT–LBM approach is well suited for study of fragile surface crust samples where physical and hydraulic properties cannot be easily quantified using conventional methods.

Feasibility of cyanobacterial inoculation for biological soil crusts formation in desert area

Practical testing of the feasibility of cyanobacterial inoculation to speed up the recovery of biological soil crusts in the field was conducted in this experiment. Results showed that cyanobacterial and algal cover climbed up to 48.5% and a total of 14 cyanobacterial and algal species were identified at the termination of inoculation experiment; biological crusts' thickness, compressive and chlorophyll a content increased with inoculation time among 3 years; moss species appeared in the second year; cyanobacterial inoculation increased organic carbon and total nitrogen of the soil; total salt, calcium carbonate and electrical conductivity in the soil also increased after inoculation. Diverse vascular plant communities composed of 10 and 9 species are established by cyanobacterial inoculation on the windward and leeward surface of the dunes, respectively, after 3 years. The Simpson index for the above two communities are 0.842 and 0.852, while the Shannon-Weiner index are 2.097 and 2.053, respectively. In conclusion, we suggest that cyanobacterial inoculation would be a suitable and effective technique to recover biological soil crusts, and may further restore the ecological system. (C) 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Cyanobacteria in biological soil crusts, Earth´s Most Extensive Biofilms: adaptation and sensitivity to global warming

School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe AZ, USA

Combined effect of soil bund with biological soil and water conservation measures in the northwestern Ethiopian highlands

Excessive runoff and soil erosion in the upper Blue Nile Basin poses a threat that has attracted the attention of the Ethiopian government because of the serious on-site effects in addition to downstream effects, such as the siltation of water harvesting structures and reservoirs. The objective of the study was to evaluate and recommend effective biophysical soil and water conservation measure(s) in the Debre Mewi watershed, about 30 km south of the Lake Tana. Six conservation measures were evaluated for their effects on runoff, soil loss, and forage yield using runoff plots. There was a significant difference between treatments for both runoff and soil loss. The four-year average annual soil loss in the different plots ranged from 26 to 71 t ha−1, and total runoff ranged from 180 to 302 mm, while annual rainfall varied between 854 mm in 2008 and 1247 mm in 2011. Soil bund combined with elephant grass had the lowest runoff and soil loss as compared to the other treatments, whereas the untreated control plot had the highest for both parameters. As an additional benefit, 2.8 and 0.7 t ha−1 year−1 of dried forage was obtained from elephant and local grasses, respectively. Furthermore, it was found that soil bund combined with Tephrosia increased soil organic matter by 13% compared to the control plot. Soil bund efficiency was significantly enhanced by combining them with biological measures and improved farmers’ perception of soil and water conservation measures.

(Table 1) Geographical location and nutrient composition of saline lake sediments (SLS) and nearby adjacent biological soil crusts (BSC) identified as potential dust sources

While microbial communities of aerosols have been examined, little is known about their sources. Nutrient composition and microbial communities of potential dust sources, saline lake sediments (SLS) and adjacent biological soil crusts (BSC), from Southern Australia were determined and compared with a previously analyzed dust sample. Multivariate analyses of fingerprinting profiles indicated that the bacterial communities of SLS and BSC were different, and these differences were mainly explained by salinity. Nutrient concentrations varied among the sites but could not explain the differences in microbial diversity patterns. Comparison of microbial communities with dust samples showed that deflation selects against filamentous cyanobacteria, such as the Nostocales group. This could be attributed to the firm attachment of cyanobacterial filaments to soil particles and/or because deflation occurs mainly in disturbed BSC, where cyanobacterial diversity is often low. Other bacterial groups, such as Actinobacteria and the spore-forming Firmicutes, were found in both dust and its sources. While Firmicutes-related sequences were mostly detected in the SLS bacterial communities (10% of total sequences), the actinobacterial sequences were retrieved from both (11-13%). In conclusion, the potential dust sources examined here show highly diverse bacterial communities and contain nutrients that can be transported with aerosols. The obtained fingerprinting and sequencing data may enable back tracking of dust plumes and their microorganisms.

Bacterial communities of the specialty crop phyllosphere: response to biological soil amendment use, rainfall, and insect visitation

Microorganisms in the plant rhizosphere, the zone under the influence of roots, and phyllosphere, the aboveground plant habitat, exert a strong influence on plant growth, health, and protection. Tomatoes and cucumbers are important players in produce safety, and the microbial life on their surfaces may contribute to their fitness as hosts for foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella enterica and Listeria monocytogenes. External factors such as agricultural inputs and environmental conditions likely also play a major role. However, the relative contributions of the various factors at play concerning the plant surface microbiome remain obscure, although this knowledge could be applied to crop protection from plant and human pathogens. Recent advances in genomic technology have made investigations into the diversity and structure of microbial communities possible in many systems and at multiple scales. Using Illumina sequencing to profile particular regions of the 16S rRNA gene, this study investigates the influences of climate and crop management practices on the field-grown tomato and cucumber microbiome. The first research chapter (Chapter 3) involved application of 4 different soil amendments to a tomato field and profiling of harvest-time phyllosphere and rhizosphere microbial communities. Factors such as water activity, soil texture, and field location influenced microbial community structure more than soil amendment use, indicating that field conditions may exert more influence on the tomato microbiome than certain agricultural inputs. In Chapter 4, the impact of rain on tomato and cucumber-associated microbial community structures was evaluated. Shifts in bacterial community composition and structure were recorded immediately following rain events, an effect which was partially reversed after 4 days and was strongest on cucumber fruit surfaces. Chapter 5 focused on the contribution of insect visitors to the tomato microbiota, finding that insects introduced diverse bacterial taxa to the blossom and green tomato fruit microbiome. This study advances our understanding of the factors that influence the microbiomes of tomato and cucumber. Farms are complex environments, and untangling the interactions between farming practices, the environment, and microbial diversity will help us develop a comprehensive understanding of how microbial life, including foodborne pathogens, may be influenced by agricultural conditions.

内蒙古草原中生物土壤结皮生态学研究

1. 生物土壤结皮是干旱半干旱生态系统中的重要组成部分，它可通过增加土壤肥力和稳定性、影响水分再分配和植物萌发、成活、生长和繁殖而对生态系统结构和功能产生重要影响。为阐明生物结皮在内蒙古草地中的作用，本报告对两个草地生态系统进行了为期三年的调查，对生物结皮的氮素输入、对放牧的响应及其与植物的关系进行了综合研究。 2. 利用乙炔还原法，本研究对内蒙古退化草地中的生物土壤结皮中的蓝藻、地衣和地耳的氮素输入进行了为期30个月的连续测定。研究发现：1) 生物结皮固氮活性主要集中于5-10月，呈单峰型曲线，表明生物土壤结皮的固氮作用主要受温度和降雨影响;2) 生物结皮年固氮量为12.99-129.9 kg N•ha-1，98%的氮素固定于6-9月份;3) 按固氮量排序，蓝藻 (61%) > 地衣 (33%) > 地耳 (6%)，表明物种组成和丰度对生物结皮的氮素输入具重要影响。生物结皮的固氮量和季节变化表明生物结皮可以是影响退化草地中植物生长和促进退化草地恢复的重要影响因子。 3. 本研究选择三个放牧处理（长期放牧、短期围封和近期放牧）对生物结皮固氮活性进行了为期3年的研究。结果表明，与短期围封相比，长期放牧造成生物土壤结皮固氮活性下降了99.5%。固氮活性在放牧时间不足11个月时即可下降至最低水平，因此，放牧持续时间短于4个月的轮牧可能有利于生物土壤结皮的固氮。 4. 本研究选择6个放牧梯度（对照：0.00 羊/公顷, 极轻度放牧：1.33羊/公顷，轻度放牧：2.67羊/公顷，中度放牧：4.00羊/公顷，重度放牧：5.33羊/公顷，极重度放牧：6.67羊/公顷)，研究放牧强度对于生物结皮丰度、物种组成和固氮输入的影响。不同放牧强度对生物结皮丰度、物种组成和固氮输入具有重要影响，表明长期放牧可抑制生物土壤结皮在氮素输入和土壤固定方面的作用。极轻度放牧对生物土壤结皮影响不大;轻度放牧造成氮素输入降低了50%;重度和极重度放牧造成氮素输入降低了90%，并可使移动性较强的物种成为生物土壤结皮的优势组分，从而可抑制其土壤固定作用。因此，极轻度和轻度放牧是有利于生物土壤结皮固氮和固定土壤的草地利用方式。 5. 在处于恢复早期的一个退化草地中，我们对生物结皮和植物之间的关系进行了为期2年的研究。结果表明，生物结皮的丰度和物种组成与植物地上生物量和盖度高度相关。生物结皮丰度和氮素输入随植物生物量和盖度下降。结果还表明生物结皮是退化草地的主要氮素输入来源，尤其是在草地恢复初期。植物组织δ15N 低于土壤，这种差异随植物生产力增高而减小，表明生物结皮所固定氮素首先被植物利用，而后返回土壤。生物结皮的固氮输入变化可能是这种变化模式的主要原因，在分解作用和氮素损失中的同位素分馏，以及菌根真菌对于氮素的转运可能也是这种变化模式的原因。结果还显示生物土壤结皮与植物之间可能存在负反馈关系。这种自我调节的反馈过程可能是影响退化草地生态系统生产力和氮素循环的重要调节机制。

鄂尔多斯植物遥感光谱及植被分布特征

本研究通过对鄂尔多斯（主要为毛乌素地区）植物遥感光谱和土壤结皮光谱的测定，通过专题资料搜集、野外踏查、植被样方调查和室内盆栽试验和实验室分析等工作，利用遥感和地理信息系统技术，测定了研究区主要植物光谱和土壤结皮光谱，建立了研究区生态环境本底数据库，在以上的基础上，进行了3方面的详细研究： （1） 通过野外样方调查，野外和室内培养的生物结皮的地面高光谱测定和野外典型地物（鄂尔多斯地区优势高等植物种和沙地土壤）的高光谱测定。采用人工模拟降雨，从苔藓休眠-正常代谢-休眠过程中，研究苔藓土壤结皮的光谱变化，得出苔藓结皮在夏季的生命活动期（正常代谢）的光谱曲线具有高等植物光谱曲线特征;不同地物的NDVI在降水前后变化：苔藓结皮NDVI的变化为0.3-0.35左右，藻类结皮变化为0.15左右，100%盖度的油蒿变化约为0.03左右，而土壤物理结皮的NDVI变化为0.06-0.08左右，可见降水对结皮的归一化植被指数的影响较土壤和高等植被大的多，对苔藓结皮的影响尤其显著。 通过线性模型研究了生物结皮对区域植被遥感解译的影响：模拟得出调查区域（11km样线）由于干湿结皮的变换， NDVI值平均变化0.03， 苔藓湿时的NDVI较苔藓干时相对提高9.3%。可见在研究区，由于苔藓结皮等土壤结皮的存在和干旱半干旱区降雨的不稳定性，必然造成该区域短时间内NDVI的不稳定性。研究结果可为如何结合苔藓结皮的高光谱特征及其变化规律选择和研究合适的生物结皮（苔藓）遥感解译方法提供借鉴。 （2）通过对1980S,1990s,2000s三个时期遥感图像解译，分析了毛乌素沙地沙漠化过程及其驱动机制，认为毛乌素沙地近20年来沙漠化程度有所减轻，植被覆盖有所增加。气候因素和人为因素是导致植被覆盖增加的决定因素，通过多元回归分析确定降水和温度是影响毛乌素沙地植被变化的关键气候因子，并建立了相应的回归方程;人为因素的影响表现在20年来农田和林地的大面积增加。 （3）在建立研究区生态环境本底数据库的基础上，利用遥感解译结果和地理信息系统的空间分析功能，分析了气候因素、地质水文因素、地形和地貌等对植被分布的影响，得出在不同尺度上，影响植被分布的关键因素不同。在鄂尔多斯研究区，区域年降水量对全区的植被分布有着重要影响，尽管地质水文条件的不同也影响了小区域的植被分布。在毛乌素沙地区，在宏观尺度上（旗县），植被分布与其所处的海拔高度关系不明显，在小尺度上，植被分布表现出趋向于相对低海拔分布;小尺度研究中发现，植被分布受地形和基质岩性的组合的综合影响。

Influence of dew on biomass and photosystem II activity of cyanobacterial crusts in the Hopq Desert, northwest China

Dew is an important water source for desert organisms in semiarid and arid regions. Both field and laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the possible roles of dew in growth of biomass and photosynthetic activity within cyanobacterial crust. The cyanobacteria, Microcoleus vaginatus Gom. and Scytonema javanicum (Kutz.) Born et Flah., were begun with stock cultures and sequential mass cultivations, and then the field experiment was performed by inoculating the inocula onto shifting sand for forming cyanobacterial crust during late summer and autumn of 2007 in Hopq Desert, northwest China. Measurements of dew amount and Chlorophyll a content were carried out in order to evaluate the changes in crust biomass following dew. Also, we determined the activity of photosystem II(PSII) within the crust in the laboratory by simulating the desiccation/rehydration process due to dew. Results showed that the average daily dew amount as measured by the cloth-plate method (CPM) was 0.154 mm during fifty-three days and that the crust biomass fluctuated from initial inoculation of 4.3 mu g Chlorophyll a cm(-2) sand to 5.8-7.3 mu g Chlorophyll a cm(-2) crust when dew acted as the sole water source, and reached a peak value of approximately 8.2 mu g Chlorophyll a cm(-2) crust owing to rainfalls. It indicated that there was a highly significant correlation between dew amounts and crust moistures (r = 0.897 or r = 0.882, all P < 0.0001), but not a significant correlation between dew and the biomass (r = 0.246 or r = 0.257, all P > 0.05), and thus concluded that dew might only play a relatively limited role in regulating the crust biomass. Correspondingly, we found that rains significantly facilitated biomass increase of the cyanobacterial crust. Results from the simulative experiment upon rehydration showed that approximately 80% of PSII activity could be achieved within about 50 min after rehydration in the dark and at 5 degrees C, and only about 20% of the activity was light-temperature dependent. This might mean that dew was crucial for cyanobacterial crust to rapidly activate photosynthetic activity during desiccation and rehydration despite low temperatures and weak light before dawn. It also showed in this study that the cyanobacterial crusts could receive and retain more dew than sand, which depended on microclimatic characteristics and soil properties of the crusts. It may be necessary for us to fully understanding the influence of dew on regulating the growth and activity of cyanobacterial crust, and to soundly evaluate the crust's potential application in fighting desertification because of the available water due to dew. (C) 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

陕北水蚀风蚀交错区两种生物结皮对土壤饱和导水率的影响

该文以陕北水蚀风蚀交错区普遍发育的地表和地上两种生物结皮为研究对象,分别以3种非生物结皮(无结皮、物理结皮、去除生物结皮)为对照,使用盘式入渗仪测定其饱和导水率。结果表明:与无结皮土壤相比,两种类型生物结皮均可极显著降低土壤饱和导水率;与去除生物结皮土壤相比,两种类型生物结皮对土壤饱和导水率的降低均不显著;与有物理结皮发育的土壤相比,地表生物结皮对土壤饱和导水率的降低不显著,而地上生物结皮对土壤饱和导水率的降低显著。一方面,两种生物结皮对土壤饱和导水率均有明显降低作用,预示生物结皮在降雨活动中可能会增加径流、降低入渗,阻碍研究区水分亏缺条件下的植被恢复和生态与环境建设。另一方面,与不同的对照相比,生物结皮对土壤饱和导水率的影响截然不同,该结论可在一定程度上解释当前有关生物结皮影响土壤水分入渗方面所存在的分歧。

陕北水蚀风蚀交错区两种生物结皮对土壤理化性质的影响

以黄土高原陕北水蚀风蚀交错区六道沟小流域为例,研究了该区以苔藓为主要成分的沙土和黄土两种生物结皮对土壤理化性质的影响。结果显示:(1)两种生物结皮均能显著增加土壤饱和含水量和田间持水量,降低容重和饱和导水率,其中沙土生物结皮还可明显粘化0～25cm土壤质地;(2)两种生物结皮均能不同程度的增加土壤全量养分、速效养分以及有机质含量,降低pH值,但其影响多数集中在表层或结皮层;(3)土壤化学性质中,全氮、速效磷和有机质受生物结皮影响程度较大,而全氮、速效钾和有机质受生物结皮影响土层较深;(4)沙土生物结皮对土壤理化性质的影响程度大于黄土生物结皮。两种类型生物结皮对所研究土壤理化性质的影响总体有利于该区生态环境的改善,且沙土生物结皮较黄土生物结皮具有更为重要的生态功能。

陕北黄土区生物结皮条件下土壤养分的积累及流失风险

分析了陕北黄土高原典型流域生物结皮的形成和发育对土壤养分的积累效应,同时对生物结皮条件下土壤养分的流失风险进行评价.结果表明:生物结皮生长发育后能够迅速增加结皮层及2cm土层的养分含量,但对深层土壤影响较小;退耕0～20年间结皮层的养分含量与退耕年限之间的关系可用指数函数(y=a[b-exp(-cx)])拟合,其中有机质、全氮和碱解氮在退耕20年间的增加速度变化不大,而全磷、速效磷和速效钾在退耕初期增加迅速,后期增加缓慢;自然发育生物结皮对土壤养分的年均净贡献量为:有机质50.15g.m-2、全氮1.95g.m-2、全磷0.44g.m-2、碱解氮164.33mg.m-2、速效磷9.64mg.m-2和速效钾126.21mg.m-2,人工培育条件下生物结皮发育更快,对养分尤其是速效养分的贡献速率更高;生物结皮条件下养分含量的提高增加了养分流失风险,尤其是养分随泥沙流失大幅度增加,生物结皮增加的养分中平均有39.06%随泥沙流失,仅有60.94%得以保留.总之,生物结皮可迅速、全面增加表层土壤养分,但同时会加大养分流失风险.尽管如此,土壤养分的净增加量仍相当可观,显示生物结皮具有较好的土壤养分积累效应.

生物土壤结皮的生态功能

Biological soil crust exists in desertification-prone areas.This paper focuses on ecological function of biological soil crust,including water relations,soil stabilization,carbon and nitrogen fixation,albedo and effects on vascular plants.Some preliminary suggestions are given for further understanding the relationship between biological soil crust and revegetation of degraded ecosystem in desertification-prone areas in Northwestern China.